Saprolegnia Is a Water Mold That Can Kill a Goldfish.
Biology and Diseases of Amphibians
Dorcas P. O'Rourke DVM, MS, DACLAM , Matthew D. Rosenbaum DVM, MS, DACLAM , in Laboratory Fauna Medicine (3rd Edition), 2015
Pathogenesis and Clinical Signs
Saprolegnia colonizes pre-existing skin lesions in aquatic amphibians. A cottony mat of fungal hyphae embrace the lesion. Paler tufts are indicative of astute infections, while darker mats indicate chronicity. Erythematous or ulcerated skin may be nowadays. In salamanders (Crawshaw, 1993; Wright, 1996; Densmore and Greenish, 2007) lesions of chromomycosis are commonly raised dark nodules; yet, they may be ulcerated (Ackermann and Miller, 1992; Wright, 1996). Debilitation and weight loss may besides be observed. Phycomycosis produces lesions similar to those of chromomycosis (Wright, 1996).
Read full chapter
URL:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095274000183
Biological science and Management of the Zebrafish
Keith M. Astrofsky , ... Charles G. Sagerstrom , in Laboratory Fauna Medicine (2nd Edition), 2002
East. Aquatic Mycosis
Saprolegnia spp. are classified as Oomycetes and are ubiquitous water molds. These organisms frequently become established in mature biofilters. Although Saprolegnia spp. are relatively easy to culture and identify, definitive species identification of clinical isolates is extremely hard due to markedly different morphologic and physiologic characteristics. Infections of zebrafish are the effect of opportunistic colonization of damaged skin due to trauma, poor husbandry, or concurrent bacterial/parasitic infection (Stoskopf, 1993). These molds do not routinely colonize living, good for you tissue, and information technology has been suggested that various isolates may be more pathogenic than others. Afflicted fish demonstrate thin white filaments that build up to puffy, white, "cottony" mattes on afflicted tissue (Fig. 13). Microscopic evaluation of pare wet mounts on low power demonstrates numerous broad aseptate hyphae, often with spore-bearing sporangia at the tips (Fig. 14). Aseptate, branching hyphae are usually visible with H & East staining and are very pronounced with silvery staining (Wardrip et al., 1999). Although uncommon, other ubiquitous aquatic fungi tin can cause opportunistic disease in zebrafish (Dykstra et al., 2001).
Fig. 13. Gross photograph of goldfish (Carassius auratus) demonstrating the characteristic fluffy, white, cottonlike appearance of Saprolegnia water mold. These fish were subsequently cultured positive for goldfish ulcer disease (Aeromonas sp.).
Fig. 14. Wet mount of cottonlike mat demonstrating nonbranching, aseptate hyphae of the Saprolegnia water mold.
Saprolegnia spp. are ubiquitous microorganisms and spread very speedily within the water organisation. Heavily infected fish with big areas of colonization are usually severely debilitated due to secondary bacterial sepsis and osmotic imbalance. These animals usually have a very poor prognosis for recovery with treatment and should exist euthanatized. Identification of the underlying crusade of fungal colonization should be investigated and remedied (i.due east., trauma, environment, concurrent pathogen). Immersion in a saltwater (noniodized table salt, Instant Ocean) solution (3.8–19 gm of salt per gallon of water) is the simplest and best prophylactic handling. Lower concentrations of table salt should be utilized initially until the sensitivity of the fish population to the treatment is established (Noga, 1996). Formalin, prolonged immersion at one ml/x gallons of water (treat every other day for 3 days and modify l% of system water on alternate days) or in combination with common salt immersion, has been used (Noga, 1996) but is not the method of pick. Yet, the best treatment for h2o mold infections remains a malachite dark-green dye bath at 50–sixty mg/liter for 10–30 sec. Again, the use of dyes as treatment agents should be carefully considered due to their potential teratogenic and mutagenic effects.
These water molds are also a common problem in zebrafish egg rearing. Decaying organic matter such as infertile or expressionless eggs provides an excellent substrate for the growth and multiplication of these fungi. Maintaining stringent water quality in egg-rearing chambers with adequate oxygenation and low organic debris is essential in minimizing problems (Lasee, 1995).
Read full chapter
URL:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780122639517500223
Beast Health and Hygiene
J.K. INGLIS B.Sc., B.A., Dip.Ed., M.I.Biol. , in Introduction to Laboratory Animal Science and Engineering science, 1980
3.four.2. AILMENTS OF FISH
The diseases and disorders outlined here, it could be said, are rarely encountered if good aquarium direction is in evidence. It is more than likely, nevertheless, that one or more of these ailments will exist seen by any person keeping fish over a period of fourth dimension.
When applying any of the treatments, handle the fish for curt periods only and be certain to avoid drastic temperature changes.
| |
| Cause of the disquiet | A water-borne mucus that enters damaged pare |
| Symptoms of the ailment | Recognizable fluffy, white film of fungus growing on the fins, mouth, skin, and gills. The fins become frayed. Death may follow due to suffocation as the mucus attacks the gills |
| Control of the ailment | Avoid overcrowding and the fouling of water. Avoid rapid changes in the temperature of the h2o |
| Treatment |
|
| |
| Crusade of the ailment | A ciliate protozoan parasite |
| Symptoms of the ailment | White spots over the skin, fins, and gills. Sluggish behavior and loss of ambition |
| Treatment | Immerse the fish in methylene blue solution made by calculation four drops of two½% methylene blue to about 4 liters of h2o |
| |
| Cause of the ailment | It is unclear what causes this condition, but several suggestions have been put forward, including: digestive upsets due to backlog dried foods and exposure to depression temperatures. |
| Symptoms of the disquiet | The fish swims to the water surface with difficulty and sinks down. It has an inability to swim upright. Floats on the top or lesser lying on its side. |
| Handling |
|
There are numerous other ailments that fish showroom, such as tumors, which may or may not reply to surgical removal or chemical treatment. The above ailments are fairly common.
Read full affiliate
URL:
https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B9780080237725500105
Interactions with Humans and Other Animals
Lynne Boddy , in The Fungi (Tertiary Edition), 2016
Pathogens of Fish
Oomycetes (Kingdom Stramenopila) are perhaps the most widespread 'fungal' disease of fish, particularly species of Achlya and Saprolegnia (Saprolegniales), but also Saprolegniales species in the genera Aphanomyces, Calyptralegnia, Dictyuchus, Leptolegnia, Pythiopis and Thraustotheca, Pythium (Peronosporales), and Leptomitus (Leptomitales). Saprolegniasis is a disease of the epidermis of fish (Figure nine.iv). It typically starts on the fins or head and often spreads over the entire body, being visible every bit white or grey mycelial patches. Spores normally enter the fish body via damaged gills. In Salmonids, saprolegniasis is associated with stress. Saprolegnia species tin as well infect fish eggs, pond from dead to live eggs via positive chemotaxis. Ulcerative mycosis and epizootic ulcerative syndrome, which can cause mass mortality, are attributed to Aphanomyces invadans. Distinct skin lesions, which appear as red-spots, blackness marks, or carmine-centred, white-rimmed deep ulcers, contain hyphae that tin can sometimes penetrate securely into the fish beyond the muscles, damaging the brain, vertebrae, and other organs. Branchiomycosis is a widespread disease, especially in warmer climes, and can cause major problems in carp farms. The disease obstructs the blood vessels in the gills, and appears initially equally flecks on the gills. The gills after become grey-white, and can even driblet off exposing underlying cartilage. Branchiomyces sanguinis is associated with carp (Cyprinus), tench (Tinca), and sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae), and Branchiomyces demigrans is common on pike (Esox) and tench.
Figure 9.iv. Saprolegniosis – oomycete (Kingdom Stramenopila) pathogens of fish and their eggs. These fungus-similar organisms crusade serious losses to fish both in commercial hatcheries and fish farms and can threaten wild stocks of salmonids when they render to their spawning grounds. (a) Mature brown trout (Salmo trutta) showing feature white lesions of Saprolegnia parasitica. (b) Secondary zoospore of Saprolegnia parasitica, with ventral groove from which flagella emerge. The hairs which decorate the inductive flagellum are shown in this electron micrograph inset. (c) A secondary cyst instance of Saprolegnia parasitica, showing bundles of hooped spines that characterise isolates of the fish pathogenic species.
Source: © Gordon Beakes.Ichthyophonosis is one of the most well-known diseases of fish, specially marine, killing over 80 species. Dissimilar well-nigh fish pathogens that are facultative, the causal agents Ichthyophonus hoferi and Ichthyophonus gasterophilum are obligate pathogens. Their phylogenetic position is non, however, articulate. Fish are usually infected via the digestive tract. Fins disintegrate and can fall off; organs including liver, kidneys and spleen can be colonised, causing swelling, distension of the body and accumulation of exudates; eyes burl and erode when colonised.
Read full affiliate
URL:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B9780123820341000098
Disease prevention and control for gametes and embryos of fish and marine shrimp
James A. Brock , Robert Bullis , in Reproductive Biotechnology in Finfish Aquaculture, 2001
iv Saprophytic infections of embryos during incubation
Biotic disease problems are limited for embryos prior to hatch. Saprophytic bacteria (Aeromonas sp., other Gram-negative genera) and fungi ( Saprolegnia sp.) are the principal microorganism of concern. Saprophytes will speedily colonized dead eggs, and if unattended, the infection can quickly spread to adjacent, salubrious eggs (Rogers, 1979). Primarily, the ascertainment of fungal and bacterial infection of eggs signals that an evaluation is needed to uncover another, more basic problem which has compromised gamete quality and egg health.
Unless the fertilized eggs are unhealthy due to other factors, saprophytic bacteria and mycotic infection of eggs tin can ordinarily be controlled by improved sanitation coupled with chemic handling. Chemicals widely used for egg treatment and disinfection are listed in Table three. Standard microbiological methods to quantify fungal zoospores and/or bacterial enumeration have been practical to identify the origin of specific microbial contamination (source h2o, system water, or in incoming eggs spawned from brood-stock). Disinfection of water can be practical using widely bachelor water treatment approaches such as ultraviolet calorie-free, ozone or chlorination–dechlorination. H2o filtration (down to one μm) should remove fungal zoospores.
Control and prevention of future losses may hinge upon the identification and correction of the factors which resulted in poor gamete, embryo or environmental quality. The principal problem can be due to deficiencies within the ova, the sperm, lack of fertilization, the physical and chemical ecology conditions or an excess microbial load due to lack of sanitation in the egg incubation system.
Read full affiliate
URL:
https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444509130500102
The Biology and Management of the Zebrafish
Michael Y. Esmail VMD , ... Fabrizio C. Serluca PhD , in Laboratory Creature Medicine (3rd Edition), 2015
Pathogenesis and Predisposing Factors
Motile zoospores tin germinate and grow on injured or immunocompromised fish. Lesions unremarkably begin as small and focal, and can quickly spread superficially across the body. Superficial damage of peel and gills tin can be fatal. Saprolegnia spp. infection in Brown Trout (Salmo trutta 50.) causes significant reduction in serum electrolytes and protein, which is proportional to the amount of diseased skin and gills (Richards and Pickering, 1979). In addition to osmotic imbalance, secondary bacterial sepsis contributes to water mold infection mortality and morbidity. In salmonids infected with Saprolegnia spp., death tin can occur 36 hours after initial infection (Roberts, 2012).
Predisposing factors include skin wounds caused by mechanical trauma or other pathogens, handling, crowding, heavy feeding rates, immunosuppresion, and high organic loads (Tiffney, 1939; Swift and Cohen, 1962; Scott and O'Bier, 1962; Noga, 2010). These organisms frequently become established in mature biofilters (Astrofsky et al., 2002b).
Read full affiliate
URL:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095274000201
Biology and Diseases of Amphibians
Dorcas P. O'Rourke , Terry Wayne Schultz , in Laboratory Animal Medicine (2d Edition), 2002
i. Etiology.
About fungi that affect amphibians are soil and water saprophytes; infection commonly occurs secondary to stress or disease. The fungal infections well-nigh frequently identified in amphibians are saprolegniasis, chromomycosis, and phycomycosis.
2. Epizootiology and transmission.
Saprolegniasis is caused by several fungi, including Saprolegnia. Diverse pigmented fungi cause chromomycosis, and Basidiobolus is the agent most normally isolated from cases of phycomycosis.
iii. Pathogenesis and clinical signs.
Saprolegnia colonizes preexisting skin lesions in aquatic amphibians. A cottony mat of fungal hyphae embrace the lesion. Paler tufts are indicative of acute infections, while darker mats indicate chronicity (Crawshaw, 1993; Wright, 1996). Lesions of chromomycosis are normally raised nighttime nodules; however, they may be ulcerated (Ackermann and Miller, 1992; Wright, 1996). Debilitation and weight loss may also exist observed. Phycomycosis produces lesions similar to those of chromomycosis (Wright, 1996).
iv. Necropsy findings.
Lesions tend to remain cutaneous in saprolegniasis, while visceral granulomas can be seen in chromomycosis.
v. Differential diagnoses.
Diagnosis tin can exist fabricated by wet mounts and fungal cultures.
half-dozen. Handling.
Saprolegniasis tin can be treated with saltwater baths (x–25 gm/liter for v–thirty min SID) or benzalkonium chloride (ii mg/liter bathroom for 10–60 min) (Wright, 1999a). Groff et al. (1991) successfully treated Basidiobolus ranarum with benzalkonium chloride (2 mg/liter bath for 30 min every other mean solar day for iii treatments; repeat in 8 days). Several treatments for chromomycosis accept been tried; results are unrewarding (Ackermann and Miller, 1992; Wright, 1996).
vii. Command and prevention.
Fungal infections can exist minimized past keeping animals healthy and unstressed in a clean environment.
viii. Inquiry complications.
Saprophytic fungi can colonize surgical wounds and other skin lesions, compromising the health of the enquiry animals.
Read full chapter
URL:
https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B978012263951750020X
Bacterial and Fungal Diseases of Zebrafish
Christopher One thousand. Whipps , Michael L. Kent , in The Zebrafish in Biomedical Research, 2020
Background
Fungi and water molds are well characterized in other fishes (Roberts, 2012), but few reports come from zebrafish colonies. The Zebrafish International Resource Center (ZIRC) diagnostic service, provides information on the diagnosis of pathogens in submitted fish from 2006 to 2022 (https://zebrafish.org/wiki/_media/health/submission/submissions_summary_2006-2016.pdf), and fungal infections were observed in only eleven of some 10,000 fish over that fourth dimension menses. It is worthwhile noting that the water molds, or oomycetes, are not fungi but protists. They have been historically grouped with fungal fish pathogens due to their fungus-like appearance. A primal differentiating characteristic is the presence of septa (septate) in fungi, versus the absenteeism of septa (aseptate) in water molds. Fungi and water molds are normally considered opportunistic pathogens, so their presence may exist indicative of another process, like a different affliction outbreak or substandard husbandry weather condition.
H2o molds from the genera Saprolegnia and Aphanomyces are among those that might exist plant in aquatic systems. Matthews (2009, pp. 321–346) indicated that Saprolegnia could be found in egg dishes or in embryo shipping containers. Ekblom (2017) evaluated the susceptibility of zebrafish embryos to Saprolegnia parasitica, and constitute that under standard conditions, fish are reasonably resistant. However, at lower temperatures, the fish were more than greatly impacted. In catfish, problems with Saprolegnia are associated with temperature drops and other stressors (Howe, Rach, & Olson, 1998). Dykstra et al. (2001) reported finding an Aphanomyces species in a zebrafish system, isolated from the trunk surface of fish.
True fungi take been reported from zebrafish facilities, but similar the water molds, these are not commonly reported and are likely opportunists. Dykstra et al. (2001) described mass mortality even associated with Lecythophora mutabilis, with anywhere from 10% to 100% of juvenile fish infected in a given tank. Kulatunga et al. (2017) isolated Fusarium oxysporum from zebrafish tanks, where mortalities were observed in larvae (l%) and adults (1%). Good for you adult fish seem to exist less impacted past the infection, but injecting F. oxysporum caused notable damage within 72 h. Although this is not a natural road of exposure, it does highlight the potential for these fungi to be pathogenic, perhaps in stressful weather.
Zebrafish have a physostomus swim float, with a direct connection to the intestinal tract. Hence, both leaner and undescribed fungi are ofttimes associated with severe necrosis and inflammation of swim bladder (aerocystitis) (Fig. 41.6). We besides occasionally observe undefined fungal organisms within granulomas in other organs, such as the kidney and muscle (Fig. 41.seven).
Figure 41.6. Colonization of anterior swim bladder by a septate fungus. PAS. (A) Depression magnification. Bar = 200 μm (B) High magnification showing septate and branching hyphae. Bar = 10 μm.
Figure 41.7. Granuloma in the kidney with pleomorphic aseptate fungi. Lesions extended through the musculus and communicated with the skin. PAS. Bar = 20 μm.
Read full chapter
URL:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9780128124314000415
Inland Water Fungi in the Anthropocene: Current and Future Perspectives
Hans-Peter Grossart , ... Keilor Rojas-Jimenez , in Reference Module in World Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2021
Aquatic fungi-like organisms
The fungi-like organisms represent non-fungal organisms from a taxonomical point of view but are oftentimes considered as a fungal grouping (Shearer et al., 2007; Grossart et al., 2019) given that they show ecological traits and functions in h2o similar to true fungi (Wong et al., 1998; Khallil et al., 2020). Aquatic fungi-like organisms are oftentimes establish in the orders of Saprolegniales and (to a much lesser extent) Peronosporales within the class of Oomycetes. Saprolegniales has nearly 15 genera known equally water molds causing destructive endemics in aquatic animals. Achlya, Aphanomyces, and Saprolegnia are the most unsafe threats to fishes and crabs beyond the world. In add-on, Pythium and Phytophthora represent common parasitic genera in freshwater ecosystems although not all members of Peronosporales occur in aquatic environments. Information technology's worth mentioning that zoosporic fungi are another term for describing both aquatic fungi and fungi-like organisms with motile spores (Wong et al., 1998; Dick, 1989; Shearer et al., 2007). Obviously, the discussion became obsolete when oomycetes and fungi got separated taxonomically.
Within the phylum Oomycota, oomycetes consist of two primary assemblages including basal and crown oomycetes. Basal oomycetes equally early-diverging ones are usually obligate parasites in marine ecosystems. Crown oomycetes, all the same, are considered to mainly occur in freshwater ecosystems. This group of fungal-similar parasites has half dozen orders with Saprolegniales and Peronosporales (encounter "Diversity and ecology of aquatic fungi and fungi-like organisms" section) equally the biggest and about recent taxa, both including aquatic genera (Beakes and Sekimoto, 2009). Saprolegniales, or water molds, are well-known, exclusively aquatic organisms in freshwater ecosystems belonging to the phylum Oomycota. They are phylogenetically and systematically separated from the kingdom fungi and placed inside the kingdom Chromista (Thines and Kamoun, 2010). Their positive association with water-related ecosystems is mainly due to their life bike consisting of motile zoospores. The coastal zone, which is rich in allochthonous organic matter from animal and institute droppings, seems to exist their primary niche (Marano et al., 2016). Their parasitic lifestyle on various species of fishes, crayfishes, etc. causes not only billions of dollars of damages to fisheries just likewise seriously endangers native aquatic animals (Van West, 2006).
Aquatic Saprolegniales such every bit Achlya, Aphanomyces, and Saprolegnia species are considered among the most widespread and unsafe creature pathogens worldwide (Bruno et al., 2011). Consequently, the multiple aspects of Saprolegniales pathogenicity in terms of ecology, variety, as well as taxonomy, accept been studied for more than a century. Several species of Saprolegnia and, to a bottom extent, Achlya, are responsible for drastic annual economical losses in salmonids and massive amphibian and crustacean mortality events, called Saprolegniosis (Hussein and Hatai, 2002; Fregeneda-Grandes et al., 2007). Their destructive potential is intensified past predisposing factors such as increases in hateful temperatures, extreme drought periods, and aquatic contamination.
The species Aphanomyces astaci represents a key example of the destructive potential of parasitic Saprolegniales. This species causes the crayfish plague, which has been studied in terms of physiological adaptations and host responses toward parasitism since the early on 1960s (Unestam, 1965; Makkonen et al., 2012). The involvement of A. astaci in crayfish plague points to its crucial ecological role in freshwaters. Crayfish species significantly affect aquatic food webs and biogeochemical cycling via control of macrophyte biomass and growth, species richness, benthic primary productivity, etc. (Matthews and Reynolds, 1992). A. astaci is considered a significant threat to European crayfish populations that were transmitted to mainly Europe and other continents through the commercial exchange of American crayfish species (which are resistant against A. astaci, but transmit it) in the 19th century (Schrimpf et al., 2013). Now, A. astaci is listed amid the globe'south 100 worst invasive species owing to the extremely high susceptibility of Non-American crayfish species (Luque et al., 2014).
Aside from parasitism, the environmental of Saprolegniales has been largely ignored with studies oftentimes limited to seasonality, occurrence, and correlation to various ecology parameters. Saprolegniales may be every bit common as their fungal counterparts in aquatic ecosystems since they may also colonize different allochthonous fauna and plant droppings in improver to being parasitic. This notion raises the question of whether Saprolegniales are as enzymatically active as fungi, making them important for allochthonous organic thing degradation. Interestingly, it has been shown that several genera in Saprolegniales comport opportunistically, apace benefitting from the availability of modest organic molecules while being ineffective in the degradation of more than complex polymers (Masigol et al., 2019, 2020). This inefficiency is unlike fungi that can dethrone a plethora of organic molecules past producing laccases and peroxidases. However, studies dealing with enzymatic capacities of Saprolegniales are rare and boosted work is much needed to exam whether ligninolytic inefficacy in Saprolegniales is universal.
Read full chapter
URL:
https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128191668000256
FUNGI | Nomenclature of the Peronosporomycetes
T. Sandle , in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014
Introduction
Physiologically and morphologically, as obligately osmotrophic heterotrophs, the Peronosporomycetes are 'fungi.' They are phylogenetically split up from the Mycota (an alternative taxonomic proper name for the kingdom Fungi) and sometimes are described as Oomycota. The biflagellate, anisokont just nonstraminipilous Plasmodiophorales and the uniflagellate Chytridiomycetes as well are unrelated. The Chytridiomycetes may be an early on adjunct from the phylogenetic line leading to the nonflagellate Mycota.
The Peronosporomycetes are algae fungi or cellulose fungi, grade a form within the Stramenopilen, and therefore are much closer to brown algae, gold algae, and diatoms used as the 18-carat fungi. The taxa include several establish pathogens, such equally the causative agent of late blight of spud and downy mildews.
The Peronosporomycetes include the most numerous, most important, and earliest known (with mid-eighteenth century reports for Saprolegnia on fish) water molds (run across Figure i). Report of the Peronosporomycetes has received attending since the 1840s, because of the sociohistoric significance of tardily blight of irish potato (Phytophthora infestans) and featherlike mildew of vines (Plasmopara viticola). Some of the nearly dissentious groups of pathogens of nutrient crops are Peronosporomycetes.
Figure ane. Illustrated and annotated life history of Saprolegnia.
Many of the parasitic species, other than the root pathogens, have restricted host ranges; most are obligate parasites not bachelor in axenic culture (a culture of an organism that is entirely complimentary of all other 'contaminating' organisms). The downy mildews (Peronosporales on advanced dicotyledons and Sclerosporales on panicoid grasses) are foliage and stem parasites; nematodes and rotifers are parasitized by the Myzocytiopsidales; arthropods by the Saprolegniales and Salilagenidiales; vertebrates by the Saprolegniales and Pythiales; and other Peronosporomycetes by related fungi.
Most species of Peronosporomycetes are freshwater or terrestrial; few are strictly aquatic, just many are characteristic of moisture marginal sites or are from seasonally or intermittently waterlogged soil. Aqualinderella fermentans is the merely obligate anaerobe. In terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, the saprobic Peronosporomycetes have a major ecological office in degradation and recycling, as deduced from estimates of activity and biomass production from spore population sizes. Many of the saprobic and facultatively parasitic species are abundant, with worldwide distributions. A few taxa are confined to the pantropics or to a continental landmass, simply strictly psychrophilic or thermophilic species have not been identified. Saprobic taxa survive in estuarine weather condition, but such habitats may non exist their primary niche: A few parasitic Peronosporomycetes are oligohaline or marine.
The Peronosporomycetes contains at to the lowest degree 900 and perchance as many as 1500 species, depending on the species concepts used for the obligate parasites of angiosperms. The chief families in terms of numbers of species, frequency of isolation, and economic importance are the Peronosporaceae, Pythiaceae, Sclerosporaceae, and Saprolegniaceae.
Read total chapter
URL:
https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B978012384730000135X
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/saprolegnia
0 Response to "Saprolegnia Is a Water Mold That Can Kill a Goldfish."
Post a Comment